Physical and Psychological Child and Adult Sex Cues and Their Association with Sexual Age Preferences.

This study combined research on human mate preferences and attraction to physical and psychological features of children. Specifically, we used the Ideals Standards Model (ISM) as a conceptual framework to investigate the sexual relevance of adult and child sex cues within the general population. A sample of 589 men (mean age 30.6 years, SD = 16.6) answered questions about their sexual age preferences as well as different child and adult sex cues. The sample showed the full gamut of sexual age preferences (i.e. ranging from prepubescent children to adults over sixty years of age). A principal component analysis revealed five dimensions of adult and child sex cues. Sexual interest in children was positively related to the two dimensions of attraction to neotenous innocence and attraction to neotenous physical appearance while being negatively related to the factor of agency. In contrast, sexual interest in adults was indicated by the dimension of vitality. The fifth dimension of warmth-truthfulness was neither related to sexual interest in children nor sexual interest in adults. We argue that attraction to neotenous innocence and attraction to neotenous physical appearance can be used as an indicator of sexual interest in children. Moreover, we discuss how our results fit in with theoretical notions from the ISM.

Same Score, Different Audience, Different Message: Perceptions of Sex Offense Risk Depend on Static-99R Risk Level and Personality Factors of the Recipient.

There are multiple ways to report risk scale results. Varela et al. (2014) found that Static-99R results were interpreted differently by prospective jurors based on risk level (high vs low) and an interaction between risk level and risk communication format (categorical, absolute estimate, and risk ratio). We adapted and extended Varela et al.'s (2014) study using updated Static-99R norms, recruiting a population-wide sample (n = 166), and adding variables assessing the personality factors 'cognitive motivation' (i.e., need for cognition) and 'attitudinal affect' (i.e., attitudes toward sex offenders, authoritarianism). We found a main effect of risk level and no effect of either communication format or the interaction between the two. Adding the personality variables increased explained variance from 9% to 34%, suggesting risk perception may be more about the personality of the person receiving the information than the information itself. We also found an interaction between attitudes toward sex offenders and risk level. Our results suggest risk perception might be better understood if personality factors are considered, particularly attitudes toward sex offenders. Because biases/personality of the person receiving the information are unknown in real world settings we argue that sharing multiple methods for communicating risk might be best and more inclusive.

The Impostor Phenomenon: Toward a Better Understanding of the Nomological Network and Gender Differences.

The impostor phenomenon (IP) refers to the tendency to perceive oneself as intellectually incompetent and to attribute one's own success to effort-related or external factors, such as fortunate circumstances. The present study (N=209) aimed to contribute to open questions regarding gender differences in the IP and the nomological network of the IP. The results show that the consistently found key correlates of the IP, that is, lower self-esteem and higher neuroticism, could also play a role in explaining why women report higher impostor feelings than men in many studies. Moreover, the results suggest that IP is characterized by the more maladaptive, socially prescribed perfectionism, which is related to the belief that others expect perfection from oneself, whereas self-oriented perfectionism, which is characterized by a critical view on oneself, plays a smaller role in differences in the IP. Finally, a strong association with the sandbagging construct challenges the conceptualization of the IP as a genuine doubt about one's own competence, because similarly to IP, sandbaggers present themselves negatively to others, but do so for very strategic reasons in order to create a low expectation base in other individuals. Regression analysis was used to assess the incremental value of the personality factors in explaining variance in the IP. It was found that sandbagging and IP are highly related but not interchangeable.

Comparison of hair cortisol concentrations between self- and professionally-collected hair samples and the role of five-factor personality traits as potential moderators.

Cortisol concentration of hair (HCC) is an established biomarker in stress research that can provide valuable retrospective information on subjects' long-term cortisol levels. Using a population-wide sample of in total N = 482 participants this study aimed to examine whether there are differences in HCC when participants collect the required samples by themselves with the help of a partner in domestic settings compared to professionally collected hair strands in the lab. Potential confounding factors that may affect HCC and might obfuscate the outcomes were considered. The results suggest that the two compared sample collection methods did not significantly differ from each other in terms of HCC (p = .307). A somewhat larger sample loss in the domestic setting was observed due to hair samples where HCC could not be determined (5.3 % vs. 1.8 % in the lab). Similarly, in a sample of N = 50 using a within-subjects design (Sample 2) no significant HCC differences between collection methods occurred (p = .206). In addition, potential moderating effects of personality traits of the Five-Factor-Model on the relationship between hair collection method and HCC were investigated. In Sample 1 personality data of the hair donor were available, while in Sample 2 personality data (n = 40) were available for the hair donor and the hair sample collector. Interestingly, none of the Big Five traits significantly moderated the relationship between HCC and hair collection method (all p > .20). Overall, these findings suggest that the self-collection of hair in domestic settings is a viable and economical method for measuring long-term cortisol concentrations in hair.

Individual differences in impulsivity and need for cognition as potential risk or resilience factors of diabetes self-management and glycemic control.

OBJECTIVE: Impulsivity is marked by insufficient reflection and forethought, whereas Need for Cognition (NFC) also referred to as cognitive motivation or intellectual engagement is marked by elaborated thinking. The aim of this study was to investigate the potential role of these personality traits as resilience or risk factors, respectively, in diabetes self-management and glycaemic control. Further, it was examined whether diabetes-specific self-efficacy could serve as a mediator of these relationships. DESIGN/MEASURES: Data of 77 participants with type 2 diabetes was ascertained, using self-report instruments for NFC, impulsivity, diabetes-specific self-efficacy, and diabetes self-management. Glycemic control was assessed by the biomarker HbA1c. RESULTS: While NFC was strongly positively associated with diabetes self-management and glycemic control, impulsivity showed a reverse pattern. Results of simple and serial mediation models showed that the effects on diabetes self-management and HbA1c of both, impulsivity and NFC, were mediated by self-efficacy. CONCLUSION: The moderate to high standardized coefficients suggests that NFC might be an important protective factor and impulsivity a possible risk factor for effective diabetes self-management and glycemic control. These traits could be applied for an easy-to-use questionnaire-based patient screening, enabling trait-tailored treatments and programs which in turn may lower economic and health costs associated with poor diabetes-care.

Cumulative Dopamine Genetic Score predicts behavioral and electrophysiological correlates of response inhibition via interactions with task demand.

Functional genetic polymorphisms in the brain dopamine (DA) system have been suggested to underlie individual differences in response inhibition, namely the suppression of a prepotent or inappropriate action. However, findings on associations between single DA polymorphisms and inhibitory control often are mixed, partly due to their small effect sizes. In the present study, a cumulative genetic score (CGS) was used: alleles previously associated with both impulsive behavior and lower baseline DA level, precisely the DRD4 Exon III 7-repeat, DAT1 VNTR 10-repeat and the COMT 158val allele, each added a point to the DA-CGS. Participants (N = 128) completed a Go/No-Go task varying in difficulty and EEG recordings were made with focus on the NoGo-P3, an ERP that reflects inhibitory response processes. We found a higher DA-CGS (lower basal/tonic DA level) to be associated with better performance (lower %FA and more adaptive responding) in the very demanding/rapid than in the less demanding/rapid condition, whereas the reverse pattern was true for individuals with a lower DA-CGS. A similar interaction pattern of DA-CGS and task condition was found for NoGo-P3 amplitude. In line with assumptions of distinct optimum DA levels for different cognitive demands, a DA-CGS-dependent variation of tonic DA levels could have modulated the balance between cognitive stability and flexibility, thereby affecting the optimal DA level required for the specific task condition. Moreover, a task demand-dependent phasic DA release might have added to the DA-CGS-related basal/tonic DA levels, thereby additionally affecting the balance between flexibility and stability, in turn influencing performance and NoGo-P3.

Thinking Against Burnout? An Individual's Tendency to Engage in and Enjoy Thinking as a Potential Resilience Factor of Burnout Symptoms and Burnout-Related Impairment in Executive Functioning.

The personality trait need for cognition (NFC) refers to individual differences in the tendency to engage in and enjoy cognitive endeavors. In today's working world, which is characterized by increasing cognitive demands, NFC may contribute to resilience against work-related stress and burnout symptoms. We investigated this question in a large population-wide sample of 4,134 individuals (Study 1) and in a sample of 125 students (Study 2). NFC was consistently negatively related to the burnout facets emotional exhaustion and reduced personal efficacy of the Maslach burnout inventory and explained up to 10% additional variance in burnout symptoms over and above the five-factor model of personality. In the student sample, where stress factors are mainly cognitive in nature, NFC was the most relevant predictor. In this sample, we additionally investigated whether NFC might be a relevant moderator of the inconsistently found associations between burnout and impairments in cognitive functioning. The participants conducted three cognitive tasks (number-letter task, two-back task, and Go/NoGo task) that measure the executive functions switching, updating, and response inhibition, respectively. While burnout was slightly negatively related to working memory performance, NFC did not moderate the relationship between burnout and executive control which could be traced back to the young and healthy sample used to examine this research question. All in all, our results clearly suggest that NFC may be an important individual difference factor contributing to the resilience against burnout, especially if stress factors are cognitive in nature.

Intellectual Investment, Dopaminergic Gene Variation, and Life Events: A Critical Examination.

Need for Cognition (NFC) and Openness to Ideas are intellectual investment traits that are characterized by a tendency to seek out, engage in and enjoy effortful cognitive activity. Little, however, is known about the extent to which they are influenced by genetic and environmental factors. With the present contribution, we aim at furthering our knowledge on the mechanisms underlying intellectual investment traits by following-up on a recent investigation of the role of dopaminergic gene variation in intellectual investment. Employing a standard approach that relied on null-hypothesis significance testing, we found that, first, two dopaminergic genetic variants interacted in modulating individual differences in NFC, but not in Openness to Ideas; that, second, negative life events played a role in the modulation of Openness to Ideas, but not of NFC; and that, third, negative life events as assessed using another measure were only marginally related to Openness to Ideas while positive life events were associated with both Openness to Ideas and NFC, with the latter effect being also dependent on DRD4 exon III genotype. However, employing a Bayesian approach, the assumption of a genetic effect on investment traits was overall not supported, while the assumption of a role of positive life events in the modulation of investment traits could be confirmed, with a tentative increment in the prediction of NFC by adding an interaction of positive life events and DRD4 variation to the main effect of positive life events. Our findings underscore the importance to use different approaches in the field of personality neuroscience. To gain deeper insight into the basis of personality traits does not only require to consider genetic as well as environmental influences and their interplay, but also requires more differentiated statistical analyses that can at least in part tackle the often inconsistent findings in this field.

Genetic variation of dopamine and serotonin function modulates the feedback-related negativity during altruistic punishment.

Why do humans cooperate and often punish norm violations of others? In the present study, we sought to investigate the genetic bases of altruistic punishment (AP), which refers to the costly punishment of norm violations with potential benefit for other individuals. Recent evidence suggests that norm violations and unfairness are indexed by the feedback-related negativity (FRN), an anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) generated neural response to expectancy violations. Given evidence on the role of serotonin and dopamine in AP as well as in FRN-generation, we explored the impact of genetic variation of serotonin and dopamine function on FRN and AP behavior in response to unfair vs. fair monetary offers in a Dictator Game (DG) with punishment option. In a sample of 45 healthy participants we observed larger FRN amplitudes to unfair DG assignments both for 7-repeat allele carriers of the dopamine D4 receptor (DRD4) exon III polymorphism and for l/l-genotype carriers of the serotonin transporter gene-linked polymorphic region (5-HTTLRP). Moreover, 5-HTTLPR l/l-genotype carriers punished unfair offers more strongly. These findings support the role of serotonin and dopamine in AP, potentially via their influence on neural mechanisms implicated in the monitoring of expectancy violations and their relation to impulsive and punishment behavior.

Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (Val66Met) and Serotonin Transporter (5-HTTLPR) Polymorphisms Modulate Plasticity in Inhibitory Control Performance Over Time but Independent of Inhibitory Control Training.

Several studies reported training-induced improvements in executive function tasks and also observed transfer to untrained tasks. However, the results are mixed and there is a large interindividual variability within and across studies. Given that training-related performance changes would require modification, growth or differentiation at the cellular and synaptic level in the brain, research on critical moderators of brain plasticity potentially explaining such changes is needed. In the present study, a pre-post-follow-up design (N = 122) and a 3-weeks training of two response inhibition tasks (Go/NoGo and Stop-Signal) was employed and genetic variation (Val66Met) in the brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) promoting differentiation and activity-dependent synaptic plasticity was examined. Because Serotonin (5-HT) signaling and the interplay of BDNF and 5-HT are known to critically mediate brain plasticity, genetic variation in the 5-HTT gene-linked polymorphic region (5-HTTLPR) was also addressed. The overall results show that the kind of training (i.e., adaptive vs. non-adaptive) did not evoke genotype-dependent differences. However, in the Go/NoGo task, better inhibition performance (lower commission errors) were observed for BDNF Val/Val genotype carriers compared to Met-allele ones supporting similar findings from other cognitive tasks. Additionally, a gene-gene interaction suggests a more impulsive response pattern (faster responses accompanied by higher commission error rates) in homozygous l-allele carriers relative to those with the s-allele of 5-HTTLPR. This, however, is true only in the presence of the Met-allele of BDNF, while the Val/Val genotype seems to compensate for such non-adaptive responding. Intriguingly, similar results were obtained for the Stop-Signal task. Here, differences emerged at post-testing, while no differences were observed at T1. In sum, although no genotype-dependent differences between the relevant training groups emerged suggesting no changes in the trained inhibition function, the observed genotype-dependent performance changes from pre- to post measurement may reflect rapid learning or memory effects linked to BDNF and 5-HTTLPR. In line with ample evidence on BDNF and BDNF-5-HT system interactions to induce (rapid) plasticity especially in hippocampal regions and in response to environmental demands, the findings may reflect genotype-dependent differences in the acquisition and consolidation of task-relevant information, thereby facilitating a more adaptive responding to task-specific requirements.

No evidence for true training and transfer effects after inhibitory control training in young healthy adults.

Recent studies reported that training of working memory may improve performance in the trained function and beyond. Other executive functions, however, have been rarely or not yet systematically examined. The aim of this study was to test the effectiveness of inhibitory control (IC) training to produce true training-related function improvements in a sample of 122 healthy adults using a randomized, double-blind pretest/posttest/follow-up design. Two groups performed either adaptive (training group) or nonadaptive (active control) versions of go/no-go and stop-signal tasks for 3 weeks. Training gains as well as near-transfer to an untrained Stroop task and far-transfer to psychometric fluid intelligence were explored. Although the adaptive group could substantially improve overall IC task performance after training, no differences to the active control group occurred, neither at posttest nor at follow-up testing. A large decrease in response latency from pre- to posttest (and from pretest to 4 months' follow-up testing) was found when the training group was compared to the passive control group, which, however, does not sufficiently control for possible confounds. Thus, no conclusive evidence was found that this performance increase mirrors a true increase in IC function. The fact that training improvement was mainly related to response latency may indicate that individuals were more focused on performance gains in the prepotent go trials but less on the stop trials to meet the requirements of the tasks as well as possible. The challenges for response inhibition training studies are extensively discussed.

Electrophysiological evidence for early perceptual facilitation and efficient categorization of self-related stimuli during an Implicit Association Test measuring neuroticism.

The Implicit Association Test (IAT) is a widely used latency-based categorization task that indirectly measures the strength of automatic associations between target and attribute concepts. So far, little is known about the perceptual and cognitive processes underlying personality IATs. Thus, the present study examined event-related potential indices during the execution of an IAT measuring neuroticism (N = 70). The IAT effect was strongly modulated by the P1 component indicating early facilitation of relevant visual input and by a P3b-like late positive component reflecting the efficacy of stimulus categorization. Both components covaried, and larger amplitudes led to faster responses. The results suggest a relationship between early perceptual and semantic processes operating at a more automatic, implicit level and later decision-related categorization of self-relevant stimuli contributing to the IAT effect.

Variation in key genes of serotonin and norepinephrine function predicts gamma-band activity during goal-directed attention.

Recent evidence shows that genetic variations in key regulators of serotonergic (5-HT) signaling explain variance in executive tasks, which suggests modulatory actions of 5-HT on goal-directed selective attention as one possible underlying mechanism. To investigate this link, 130 volunteers were genotyped for the 5-HT transporter gene-linked polymorphic region (5-HTTLPR) and for a variation (TPH2-703 G/T) of the TPH2 gene coding for the rate-limiting enzyme of 5-HT synthesis in the brain. Additionally, a functional polymorphism of the norepinephrine transporter gene (NET -3081 A/T) was considered, which was recently found to predict attention and working memory processes in interaction with serotonergic genes. The flanker-based Attention Network Test was used to assess goal-directed attention and the efficiency of attentional networks. Event-related gamma-band activity served to indicate selective attention at the intermediate phenotype level. The main findings were that 5-HTTLPR s allele and TPH2 G-allele homozygotes showed increased induced gamma-band activity during target processing when combined with the NET A/A genotype compared with other genotype combinations, and that gamma activity mediates the genotype-specific effects on task performance. The results further support a modulatory role of 5-HT and NE function in the top-down attentional selection of motivationally relevant over competing or irrelevant sensory input.

Neuroticism explains unwanted variance in Implicit Association Tests of personality: possible evidence for an affective valence confound.

Meta-analytic data highlight the value of the Implicit Association Test (IAT) as an indirect measure of personality. Based on evidence suggesting that confounding factors such as cognitive abilities contribute to the IAT effect, this study provides a first investigation of whether basic personality traits explain unwanted variance in the IAT. In a gender-balanced sample of 204 volunteers, the Big-Five dimensions were assessed via self-report, peer-report, and IAT. By means of structural equation modeling (SEM), latent Big-Five personality factors (based on self- and peer-report) were estimated and their predictive value for unwanted variance in the IAT was examined. In a first analysis, unwanted variance was defined in the sense of method-specific variance which may result from differences in task demands between the two IAT block conditions and which can be mirrored by the absolute size of the IAT effects. In a second analysis, unwanted variance was examined in a broader sense defined as those systematic variance components in the raw IAT scores that are not explained by the latent implicit personality factors. In contrast to the absolute IAT scores, this also considers biases associated with the direction of IAT effects (i.e., whether they are positive or negative in sign), biases that might result, for example, from the IAT's stimulus or category features. None of the explicit Big-Five factors was predictive for method-specific variance in the IATs (first analysis). However, when considering unwanted variance that goes beyond pure method-specific variance (second analysis), a substantial effect of neuroticism occurred that may have been driven by the affective valence of IAT attribute categories and the facilitated processing of negative stimuli, typically associated with neuroticism. The findings thus point to the necessity of using attribute category labels and stimuli of similar affective valence in personality IATs to avoid confounding due to recoding.

Serotonergic modulation in executive functioning: linking genetic variations to working memory performance.

Emerging evidence from studies using, for example, acute tryptophan depletion or investigating genetic variation of genes related to the serotonin signaling pathway suggest a role of serotonin in executive functions such as top-down attention, working memory and inhibitory control. In the current study, we aimed at extending this evidence by using the n-back task to examine working memory performance of 130 participants via behavioral and neurophysiological indices and by focusing on variations within genes encoding key regulators of the serotonergic system: the serotonin transporter gene-linked polymorphic region (5-HTTLPR) and a repeat polymorphism in the transcriptional control region of the monoamine-oxidase gene (MAOA-uVNTR). Because serotonin and norepinephrine systems have been shown to be structurally and functionally highly interrelated, we also examined a novel polymorphism in the promoter region of the norepinephrine transporter gene (NET -3081) in anticipation of epistatic effects. We found that carriers of 5-HTTLPR and MAOA-uVNTR alleles recently implicated in executive processing showed a more efficient executive control of working memory-related performance as evidenced by reaction time, error rate as well as N2 and P3b event-related potential measures. This impact was further supported by interactions with the NET polymorphism. Linking serotonergic influence to mechanisms of inhibitory response control implicated in working memory, our results provide further support for and add new evidence concerning the importance of serotonergic neuromodulation in executive functioning.

On the role of serotonin and effort in voluntary attention: evidence of genetic variation in N1 modulation.

Ascending serotonergic projections from the raphe nuclei to frontal brain areas and the dense distribution of receptor and transporter sites in prefrontal and sensory regions support the idea that serotonin exerts influence on cognitive functioning. Indeed, growing evidence suggests serotonin to be an important factor in learning and memory; however, its precise role in executive processes particularly in voluntary attention is less clear. Event-related EEG studies showed the N1 potential to predict top-down attention allocation and implicated the auditory N1 in central serotonergic activity. Dipole analyses and single-trial coupling of EEG and fMRI revealed N1 sources in the primary auditory cortex and in the anterior cingulate. In the present study, amplitude variation of the event-related N1 potential was investigated on 72 healthy subjects while performing an auditory novelty oddball paradigm to tap top-down and bottom-up attention allocation. Possible serotonergic effects on voluntary attention were analyzed using allele variants of a functional polymorphism (5-HTTLPR) of the gene encoding the serotonin transporter, a key regulator of serotonergic neurotransmission. Because mental effort has been related to top-down attention and N1 modulation, a measure of stable individual differences in cognitive effort was included. The main result was a strong interaction of 5-HTTLPR and cognitive effort on target N1 amplitude. Greater target-related attention allocation was evident in those carriers of the 5-HTTLPR s-allele who described themselves as being more engaged in effortful processing. We suggest that the observed interaction mirrors the interplay between effort-mediated top-down attention by the ACC and serotonergic adjustment on attentional systems.

Same or different? Clarifying the relationship of need for cognition to personality and intelligence.

Need for cognition (NFC) refers to an individual's tendency to engage in and enjoy effortful cognitive processing. So far, little attention has been paid to a systematic evaluation of the distinctiveness of NFC from traits with similar conceptualization and from intelligence. The present research contributes to filling this gap by examining the relation of NFC to well-established personality concepts (Study 1) and to a comprehensive measure of intelligence in a sample with broad educational backgrounds (Study 2). We observed NFC to be positively correlated with openness, emotional stability, and traits indicating goal orientation. Using confirmatory factor analysis and event-related potentials, incremental validity of NFC and openness to ideas was demonstrated, showing that NFC is more predictive of drive-related and goal-oriented behavior and attentional resource allocation. Regarding intelligence, NFC was more associated with fluid than with crystallized aspects of intelligence. Altogether, the results provide strong support for the conceptual autonomy of NFC.

Neurophysiological measures of involuntary and voluntary attention allocation and dispositional differences in need for cognition.

Need for cognition (NFC) refers to stable individual differences in the intrinsic motivation to engage in and enjoy effortful cognitive endeavors and has been a useful predictor of dispositional differences in information processing. Although cognitive resource allocation conceptualized as cognitive effort is assumed to be the key mediator of NFC-specific processing, to date no research has systematically addressed its underpinnings. Using a neurocognitive paradigm and recording event-related potentials associated with bottom-up and top-down-driven aspects of attention, the present research contributes to filling this gap. In Study 1, high-NFC individuals showed larger P3a amplitudes to contextually novel events, indicating greater involuntary (automatic) attention allocation. This effect was replicated in Study 2, where NFC also was positively correlated with the P3b to target stimuli, indicating voluntary (controlled) processes of attention allocation. Thus, our findings provide first evidence for neurophysiological correlates of NFC and can improve the understanding of NFC-specific processing.